Substances or agents that affect the reproductive health of women or men or the ability of couples to have healthy children are called reproductive hazards. Radiation, some chemicals, certain drugs (legal and illegal), cigarettes, some viruses, and alcohol are examples of reproductive hazards. This article focuses on reproductive hazards in the workplace that affect women and their ability to have healthy children.

The harmful effects of a few agents found in the workplace have been known for many years. For example, more than 100 years ago, lead was discovered to cause miscarriages, stillbirths, and infertility in female pottery workers. Rubella (German measles) was recognized as a major cause of birth defects in the 1940s. However, the causes of most reproductive health problems are still not known. Many of these problems-infertility, miscarriage and low birth weight are fairly common occurrences and affect working and nonworking women.

A reproductive hazard could cause one or more health effects, depending on when the woman is exposed. For example, exposure to harmful substances during the first 3 months of pregnancy might cause a birth defect or a miscarriage. During the last 6 months of pregnancy, exposure to reproductive hazards could slow the growth of the fetus, affect the development of its brain, or cause premature labor. Reproductive hazards may not affect every woman or every pregnancy.

Table 1 lists chemical and physical reproductive hazards for women in the workplace. The list is not complete and is constantly being revised. Therefore, do not assume that a substance is safe if it is missing from the list.

Table 2 lists viruses and other disease-causing (infectious) agents that are found in some workplaces and that have harmful reproductive effects in pregnant women.

Table 1. Chemical and physical agents that are reproductive hazards for women in the workplace
Agent	Observed effects	Potentially exposed workers
Cancer treatment drugs (e.g., methotrexate)	Infertility, miscarriage, birth defects, low birth weight	Health care workers, pharmacists
Certain ethylene glycol ethers such as 2-ethoxyethanol (2EE) and 2-methoxyethanol (2ME)	Miscarriages	Electronic and semiconductor workers
Carbon disulfide (CS2)	Menstrual cycle changes	Viscose rayon workers
Lead	Infertility, miscarriage, low birth weight, developmental disorders	Battery makers, solderers, welders, radiator repairers, bridge repainters, firing range workers, home remodelers
Ionizing radiation (e.g., X-rays and gamma rays)	Infertility, miscarriage, birth defects, low birth weight, developmental disorders, childhood cancers	Health care workers, dental personnel, atomic workers
Strenuous physical labor  (e.g., prolonged standing, heavy lifting)	Miscarriage late in pregnancy, premature delivery	Many types of workers

 

Table 2. Disease-causing agents that are reproductive hazards for women in the workplace
Agent	Observed effects	Potentially exposed workers	Preventive measures
Cytomegalovirus (CMV)	Birth defects, low birth weight, developmental disorders	Health care workers, workers in contact with infants and children	Good hygienic  practices such as handwashing
Hepatitis B virus	Low birth weight	Health care workers	Vaccination
Human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV)	Low birth weight, childhood cancer	Health care workers	Practice universal precautions
Human parvovirus B19	Miscarriage	Health care workers, workers in contact with infants and children	Good hygienic  practices such as handwashing
Rubella (German measles)	Birth defects, low birth weight	Health care workers, workers  in contact with  infants and  children	Vaccination before pregnancy if no prior immunity
Toxoplasmosis	Miscarriage, birth defects, developmental disorders	Animal care workers, veterinarians	Good hygiene  practices such as handwashing
Varicella-zoster virus (chicken pox)	Birth defects, low birth weight	Health care workers, workers in contact with infants and children	Vaccination before pregnancy if no prior immunity

 Women with immunity through vaccinations or earlier exposures are not generally at risk from diseases such as hepatitis B, human parvovirus B19, German measles, or chicken pox. But pregnant women without prior immunity should avoid contact with infected children or adults.

 Women should also use good hygienic practices such as frequent hand washing to prevent the spread of infectious diseases among workers in elementary schools, nursery schools, and daycare centers. In addition, they should use universal precautions-such as glove wearing and safe disposal of needles-to protect against disease-causing agents found in blood.